William A. Fowler "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe" The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004
William A. Fowler
"for
his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of
importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"
Nobel Laureates and Research Affiliations
This list shows the universities, research
institutions or companies Nobel Laureates were affiliated with at the
time of the Nobel Prize announcement.
Only Nobel Laureates in Physics, Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine,
and Laureates in Economic Sciences are shown in the list.
A.F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia (1)
Zhores I. Alferov
"for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics"
Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (2)
Jens C. Skou
"for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase"
Dale T. Mortensen
"for their analysis of markets with search frictions"
Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR (3)
Lev Landau
"for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"
Pyotr Kapitsa
"for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics"
Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich
"for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources"
All Souls College, Oxford, United Kingdom (1)
John R. Hicks
"for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory"
Amsterdam University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands (2)
Pieter Zeeman
"in
recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their
researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"
Johannes Diderik van der Waals
"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids"
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA (1)
Alexei A. Abrikosov
"for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA (2)
Edward C. Prescott
"for
their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of
economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles"
Elinor Ostrom
"for her analysis of economic governance, especially the commons"
Associated Universities Inc., Washington, DC, USA (1)
Riccardo Giacconi
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"
Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Berkshire, United Kingdom (1)
John Cockcroft
"for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
Australian National University, Canberra, Australia (1)
Sir John Eccles
"for
their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in
excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the
nerve cell membrane"
Australian National University, Weston Creek, Australia (1)
Brian P. Schmidt
"for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae"
Basel Institute for Immunology, Basel, Switzerland (2)
Niels K. Jerne
"for
theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the
immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of
monoclonal antibodies"
Georges J.F. Köhler
"for
theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the
immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of
monoclonal antibodies"
Basel University, Basel, Switzerland (1)
Tadeus Reichstein
"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
Bell Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ, USA (2)
Arno Penzias
"for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"
Robert Woodrow Wilson
"for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"
Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, USA (2)
George E. Smith
"for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit - the CCD sensor"
Willard S. Boyle
"for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit - the CCD sensor"
Bell Telephone Laboratories, New York, NY, USA (1)
Clinton Davisson
"for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, USA (2)
Walter H. Brattain
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
Philip W. Anderson
"for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
Berlin University, Berlin, Germany (7)
Max Planck
"in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta"
Erwin Schrödinger
"for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
Jacobus H. van 't Hoff
"in
recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the
discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in
solutions"
Emil Fischer
"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses"
Peter Debye
"for
his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his
investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and
electrons in gases"
Berne University, Berne, Switzerland (1)
Theodor Kocher
"for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"
Biozentrum der Universität, Basel, Switzerland (1)
Werner Arber
"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"
Birmingham University, Birmingham, United Kingdom (1)
Norman Haworth
"for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C"
Boston University Medical School, Massachusetts, MA, USA (1)
Osamu Shimomura
"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA (1)
Joseph E. Murray
"for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"
Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (1)
Cecil Powell
"for
his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear
processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method"
Brown University, Providence, RI, USA (1)
Leon N. Cooper
"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
Brussels University, Brussels, Belgium (1)
Jules Bordet
"for his discoveries relating to immunity"
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), Sèvres, France (1)
Charles Edouard Guillaume
"in
recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in
Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys"
Calcutta University, Calcutta, India (1)
Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman
"for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, CA, USA (17)
Robert A. Millikan
"for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect"
Rudolf Mössbauer
"for
his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation
and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name"
Richard P. Feynman
"for
their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing
consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
Murray Gell-Mann
"for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions"
William A. Fowler
"for
his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of
importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"
H. David Politzer
"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
Linus Pauling
"for
his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application
to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances"
Rudolph A. Marcus
"for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems"
Ahmed Zewail
"for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy"
Robert H. Grubbs
"for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis"
Thomas H. Morgan
"for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"
George Beadle
"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"
Max Delbrück
"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"
Roger W. Sperry
"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"
Edward B. Lewis
"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"
Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom (1)
Sir Martin J. Evans
"for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"
Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA (1)
Otto Stern
"for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton"
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Long Island, New York, NY, USA (1)
Alfred D. Hershey
"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"
Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA (2)
Herbert A. Simon
"for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations"
Finn E. Kydland
"for
their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of
economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles"
Center for Study of Public Choice, Fairfax, VA, USA (1)
James M. Buchanan Jr.
"for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making"
Central Research Laboratories, EMI, London, United Kingdom (1)
Godfrey N. Hounsfield
"for the development of computer assisted tomography"
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland (4)
Carlo Rubbia
"for
their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the
discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak
interaction"
Simon van der Meer
"for
their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the
discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak
interaction"
Jack Steinberger
"for
the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure
of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
Georges Charpak
"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China (1)
Youyou Tu
"for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria"
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China (1)
Charles K. Kao
"for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication"
City University of New York, New York, NY, USA (1)
Harry M. Markowitz
"for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics"
Clare Hall Laboratory, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (1)
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, USA (1)
Barbara McClintock
"for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"
Collège de France, Paris, France (4)
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
"for
discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in
simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in
particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
Serge Haroche
"for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems"
Jean-Marie Lehn
"for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"
Cologne University, Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Kurt Alder
"for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis"
Columbia University, New York, NY, USA (16)
Isidor Isaac Rabi
"for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei"
Hideki Yukawa
"for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
Polykarp Kusch
"for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron"
Tsung-Dao Lee
"for
their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has
led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles"
James Rainwater
"for
the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle
motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the
structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
Horst L. Störmer
"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations"
Martin Chalfie
"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Dickinson W. Richards
"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"
Eric R. Kandel
"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"
Richard Axel
"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"
William Vickrey
"for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information"
Robert A. Mundell
"for
his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange
rate regimes and his analysis of optimum currency areas"
Joseph E. Stiglitz
"for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information"
Edmund S. Phelps
"for his analysis of intertemporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy"
Columbia University Division, Cardio-Pulmonary Laboratory, Bellevue Hospital, New York, NY, USA (1)
André F. Cournand
"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"
Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark (3)
Niels Bohr
"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"
August Krogh
"for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism"
Johannes Fibiger
"for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA (8)
Hans Bethe
"for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
Kenneth G. Wilson
"for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions"
Robert C. Richardson
"for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"
James B. Sumner
"for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized"
Vincent du Vigneaud
"for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone"
Roald Hoffmann
"for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions"
Robert W. Holley
"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, United Kingdom (1)
Edward V. Appleton
"for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer"
Digital Pathways, Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA (1)
Melvin Schwartz
"for
the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure
of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA (1)
William C. Campbell
"for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites"
Du Pont, Wilmington, DE, USA (1)
Charles J. Pedersen
"for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"
Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA (1)
Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA (1)
École municipale de physique et de chimie industrielles (Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry), Paris, France (1)
Pierre Curie
"in
recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their
joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor
Henri Becquerel"
École Nationale Supérieur des Mines de Paris, Paris, France (1)
Maurice Allais
"for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources"
École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France (3)
Alfred Kastler
"for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms"
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
Serge Haroche
"for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems"
École Polytechnique, Paris, France (1)
Henri Becquerel
"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity"
École Supérieure de Physique et Chimie, Paris, France (1)
Georges Charpak
"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom (2)
Charles Glover Barkla
"for his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements"
Max Born
"for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction"
Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), Zurich, Switzerland (4)
Leopold Ruzicka
"for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes"
Vladimir Prelog
"for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions"
Richard R. Ernst
"for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"
Kurt Wüthrich
"for
his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for
determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules
in solution"
Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA (1)
Yoichiro Nambu
"for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics"
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Minneapolis, MN, USA (1)
Edward C. Prescott
"for
their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of
economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles"
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, IL, USA (1)
Leon M. Lederman
"for
the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure
of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
Finsen Medical Light Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark (1)
Niels Ryberg Finsen
"in
recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases,
especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he
has opened a new avenue for medical science"
Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany (1)
Francis Crick Institute, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom (1)
Frankfurt-on-the-Main University, Frankfurt-on-the-Main, Germany (1)
Max von Laue
"for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals"
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA (3)
E. Donnall Thomas
"for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"
Leland H. Hartwell
"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"
Linda B. Buck
"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"
Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Ernst Ruska
"for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope"
Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin, Germany (1)
Gerhard Ertl
"for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces"
General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY, USA (2)
Ivar Giaever
"for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
Irving Langmuir
"for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry"
George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA (1)
Vernon L. Smith
"for
having established laboratory experiments as a tool in empirical
economic analysis, especially in the study of alternative market
mechanisms"
German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany (2)
Stefan W. Hell
"for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy"
Harald zur Hausen
"for his discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer"
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium (1)
Corneille Heymans
"for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration"
Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA (1)
Shinya Yamanaka
"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"
Glynn Research Laboratories, Bodmin, United Kingdom (1)
Peter Mitchell
"for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory"
Goettingen University, Göttingen, Germany (5)
James Franck
"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"
Otto Wallach
"in
recognition of his services to organic chemistry and the chemical
industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds"
Richard Zsigmondy
"for
his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and
for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modern
colloid chemistry"
Adolf Windaus
"for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins"
Paul Ehrlich
"in recognition of their work on immunity"
Graz University, Graz, Austria (2)
Fritz Pregl
"for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances"
Otto Loewi
"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"
Greifswald University, Greifswald, Germany (1)
Johannes Stark
"for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields"
Groningen University, Groningen, the Netherlands (1)
Frits Zernike
"for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"
Gurdon Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom (1)
Sir John B. Gurdon
"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"
Göteborg University, Gothenburg, Sweden (1)
Arvid Carlsson
"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"
Halle University, Halle, Germany (1)
Gustav Hertz
"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"
Harvard Business School, Boston, MA, USA (1)
Alvin E. Roth
"for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design"
Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA (6)
Fritz Lipmann
"for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"
John F. Enders
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"
Baruj Benacerraf
"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"
David H. Hubel
"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"
Torsten N. Wiesel
"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"
Jack W. Szostak
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA (26)
Percy W. Bridgman
"for
the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and
for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure
physics"
E. M. Purcell
"for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
Julian Schwinger
"for
their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing
consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
John H. van Vleck
"for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
Steven Weinberg
"for
their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including,
inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
Nicolaas Bloembergen
"for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy"
Norman F. Ramsey
"for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks"
Roy J. Glauber
"for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence"
Theodore W. Richards
"in recognition of his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements"
Robert B. Woodward
"for his outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis"
William Lipscomb
"for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding"
Dudley R. Herschbach
"for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes"
Elias James Corey
"for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis"
Martin Karplus
"for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems"
George R. Minot
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"
William P. Murphy
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"
Georg von Békésy
"for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"
James Watson
"for
their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids
and its significance for information transfer in living material"
Konrad Bloch
"for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"
George Wald
"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"
Simon Kuznets
"for
his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led
to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and
process of development"
Kenneth J. Arrow
"for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory"
Wassily Leontief
"for the development of the input-output method and for its application to important economic problems"
Robert C. Merton
"for a new method to determine the value of derivatives"
Alvin E. Roth
"for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design"
Harvard University, Biological Laboratories, Cambridge, MA, USA (1)
Walter Gilbert
"for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids"
Harvard University, Lyman Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA (1)
Sheldon Glashow
"for
their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including,
inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Japan (1)
Makoto Kobayashi
"for
the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the
existence of at least three families of quarks in nature"
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan (1)
Akira Suzuki
"for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis"
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, , (6)
Roger Y. Tsien
"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Thomas A. Steitz
"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"
Jack W. Szostak
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
Randy W. Schekman
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
Thomas C. Südhof
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Durham, NC, USA (1)
I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G., Heidelberg, Germany (1)
Carl Bosch
"in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods"
I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G., Mannheim-Rheinau, Germany (1)
Friedrich Bergius
"in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods"
IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, USA (1)
Leo Esaki
"for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Rüschlikon, Switzerland (4)
Heinrich Rohrer
"for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"
J. Georg Bednorz
"for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"
K. Alex Müller
"for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"
Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, United Kingdom (2)
Sir Paul Nurse
"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"
Tim Hunt
"for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"
Imperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratory, London, United Kingdom (1)
Renato Dulbecco
"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"
Imperial College, London, United Kingdom (4)
Dennis Gabor
"for his invention and development of the holographic method"
Abdus Salam
"for
their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including,
inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
Derek Barton
"for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry"
Geoffrey Wilkinson
"for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds"
Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA (2)
Hermann J. Muller
"for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation"
Elinor Ostrom
"for her analysis of economic governance, especially the commons"
Innsbruck University, Innsbruck, Austria (1)
Institut du Radium, Paris, France (2)
Frédéric Joliot
"in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements"
Irène Joliot-Curie
"in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements"
Institut Français du Pétrole, Rueil-Malmaison, France (1)
Yves Chauvin
"for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis"
Institut Pasteur, Paris, France (5)
Alphonse Laveran
"in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases"
Ilya Mechnikov
"in recognition of their work on immunity"
François Jacob
"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"
André Lwoff
"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"
Jacques Monod
"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, USA (2)
Chen Ning Yang
"for
their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has
led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles"
Eric S. Maskin
"for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory"
Institute for Biochemical Research, Buenos Aires, Argentina (1)
Luis Leloir
"for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates"
Institute for Chemical Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow, USSR (1)
Nikolay Semenov
"for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions"
Institute for Infectious Diseases, Berlin, Germany (1)
Robert Koch
"for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis"
Institute of Cell Biology of the C.N.R., Rome, Italy (1)
Rita Levi-Montalcini
"for their discoveries of growth factors"
Institute of Physical Chemistry, Cambridge, United Kingdom (1)
Ronald G.W. Norrish
"for
their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by
disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
Institute of Technology, Milan, Italy (1)
Giulio Natta
"for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers"
Instituto de Biologia y Medicina Experimental (Institute for Biology and Experimental Medicine), Buenos Aires, Argentina (1)
Bernardo Houssay
"for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"
International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy (1)
Abdus Salam
"for
their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and
electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including,
inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
Istituto Superiore di Sanità (Chief Institute of Public Health), Rome, Italy (1)
Daniel Bovet
"for
his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action
of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular
system and the skeletal muscles"
Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, USA (1)
George D. Snell
"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"
Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA (1)
Eric Betzig
"for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy"
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA (1)
Adam G. Riess
"for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae"
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA (4)
Daniel Nathans
"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"
Hamilton O. Smith
"for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"
Carol W. Greider
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Fritz-Haber-Institut) für physikalische Chemie und Electrochemie, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany (1)
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck Institut) für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany (1)
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck Institut) für Medizinische Forschung, Heidelberg, Germany (1)
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Biochemie, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany (1)
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Biologie, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany (1)
Otto Warburg
"for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme"
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Physik, Berlin, Germany (2)
Albert Einstein
"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
Peter Debye
"for
his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his
investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and
electrons in gases"
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (4)
Ragnar Granit
"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"
Ulf von Euler
"for
their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve
terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
Sune K. Bergström
"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"
Bengt I. Samuelsson
"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"
Karolinska Institutet, Nobel Medical Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (1)
Hugo Theorell
"for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes"
Kiel University, Kiel, Germany (2)
Otto Meyerhof
"for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle"
Kiel University, Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Otto Diels
"for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis"
Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (1)
Satoshi Ōmura
"for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites"
Konrad-Lorenz-Institut der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Forschungsstelle für Ethologie, Altenberg; Grünau im Almtal, Austria (1)
Konrad Lorenz
"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"
Kyoto Imperial University, Kyoto, Japan (1)
Hideki Yukawa
"for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan (1)
Toshihide Maskawa
"for
the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the
existence of at least three families of quarks in nature"
Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan (2)
Kenichi Fukui
"for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions"
Shinya Yamanaka
"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"
Königliches Institut für experimentelle Therapie (Royal Institute for Experimental Therapy), Frankfurt-on-the-Main, Germany (1)
Paul Ehrlich
"in recognition of their work on immunity"
Laboratories of the Division of Medicine and Public Health, Rockefeller Foundation, New York, NY, USA (1)
Max Theiler
"for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it"
Laboratorium der Farben-Fabriken J.R. Geigy A.G. (Laboratory of the J.R. Geigy Dye-Factory Co.), Basel, Switzerland (1)
Paul Müller
"for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"
Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule (Agricultural College), Berlin, Germany (1)
Eduard Buchner
"for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cell-free fermentation"
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA (1)
Saul Perlmutter
"for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae"
Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands (3)
Hendrik A. Lorentz
"in
recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their
researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
"for
his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures
which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium"
Willem Einthoven
"for his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"
Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany (2)
Werner Heisenberg
"for
the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter
alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
Wilhelm Ostwald
"in
recognition of his work on catalysis and for his investigations into
the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of
reaction"
Liverpool University, Liverpool, United Kingdom (1)
London School of Economics and Political Science, London, United Kingdom (1)
Christopher A. Pissarides
"for their analysis of markets with search frictions"
London University, London, United Kingdom (6)
Owen Willans Richardson
"for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him"
George Paget Thomson
"for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
Arthur Harden
"for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes"
Archibald V. Hill
"for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle"
Sir Alexander Fleming
"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"
Maurice Wilkins
"for
their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids
and its significance for information transfer in living material"
London University, King's College Hospital Medical School, London, United Kingdom (1)
Sir James W. Black
"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"
Long Term Capital Management, Greenwich, CT, USA (1)
Myron S. Scholes
"for a new method to determine the value of derivatives"
Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität, Munich, Germany (1)
Theodor W. Hänsch
"for
their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
Madrid University, Madrid, Spain (1)
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
Mainz University, Mainz, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Werner Forssmann
"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"
Marburg University, Marburg, Germany (1)
Emil von Behring
"for
his work on serum therapy, especially its application against
diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical
science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious
weapon against illness and deaths"
Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. Ltd., London, United Kingdom (1)
Guglielmo Marconi
"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL), Woods Hole, MA, USA (1)
Osamu Shimomura
"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA (2)
Fritz Lipmann
"for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"
Jack W. Szostak
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA (17)
Charles H. Townes
"for
fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to
the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser
principle"
Samuel C.C. Ting
"for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind"
Jerome I. Friedman
"for
their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of
electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential
importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
Henry W. Kendall
"for
their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of
electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential
importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
Clifford G. Shull
"for the development of the neutron diffraction technique"
Wolfgang Ketterle
"for
the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali
atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the
condensates"
Frank Wilczek
"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
Mario J. Molina
"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
Richard R. Schrock
"for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis"
Salvador E. Luria
"for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"
David Baltimore
"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"
Susumu Tonegawa
"for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity"
H. Robert Horvitz
"for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"
Paul A. Samuelson
"for
the scientific work through which he has developed static and dynamic
economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of
analysis in economic science"
Franco Modigliani
"for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets"
Robert M. Solow
"for his contributions to the theory of economic growth"
Peter A. Diamond
"for their analysis of markets with search frictions"
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Center for Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA, USA (1)
Phillip A. Sharp
"for their discoveries of split genes"
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany (1)
Stefan W. Hell
"for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy"
Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, Martinsried, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Robert Huber
"for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"
Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysik, Frankfurt-on-the-Main, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Hartmut Michel
"for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"
Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysikalische Chemie, Göttingen, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Erwin Neher
"for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"
Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Mainz, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Paul J. Crutzen
"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Tübingen, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"
Max-Planck-Institut für Festkörperforschung, Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung (Max-Planck-Institute for Carbon Research), Mülheim/Ruhr, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Karl Ziegler
"for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers"
Max-Planck-Institut für medizinische Forschung, Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (2)
Walther Bothe
"for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
Bert Sakmann
"for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"
Max-Planck-Institut für Physikalische Chemie, Göttingen, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Manfred Eigen
"for
their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by
disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, Garching, Germany (1)
Theodor W. Hänsch
"for
their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
Max-Planck-Institut für Zellchemie, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Feodor Lynen
"for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA (2)
Edward C. Kendall
"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
Philip S. Hench
"for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (1)
Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan (1)
Isamu Akasaki
"for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources"
Military Medical Academy, St. Petersburg, Russia (1)
Ivan Pavlov
"in
recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which
knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and
enlarged"
MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (8)
Max F. Perutz
"for their studies of the structures of globular proteins"
John C. Kendrew
"for their studies of the structures of globular proteins"
Frederick Sanger
"for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids"
Aaron Klug
"for
his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his
structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein
complexes"
John E. Walker
"for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)"
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"
Francis Crick
"for
their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids
and its significance for information transfer in living material"
César Milstein
"for
theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the
immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of
monoclonal antibodies"
Munich University, Munich, Germany (4)
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
"in
recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the
discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him"
Adolf von Baeyer
"in
recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and
the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and
hydroaromatic compounds"
Richard Willstätter
"for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll"
Heinrich Wieland
"for his investigations of the constitution of the bile acids and related substances"
Munster University, Munster, Germany (1)
Gerhard Domagk
"for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil"
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan (3)
Hiroshi Amano
"for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources"
Isamu Akasaki
"for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources"
Ryoji Noyori
"for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions"
Nancy University, Nancy, France (1)
Victor Grignard
"for
the discovery of the so-called Grignard reagent, which in recent years
has greatly advanced the progress of organic chemistry"
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA (1)
John C. Mather
"for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation"
National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom (2)
Archer J.P. Martin
"for their invention of partition chromatography"
Sir Henry Dale
"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (1)
Martin Rodbell
"for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA (1)
William D. Phillips
"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, USA (2)
John L. Hall
"for
their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
David J. Wineland
"for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems"
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA (4)
Christian Anfinsen
"for
his work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the connection between
the amino acid sequence and the biologically active conformation"
Marshall W. Nirenberg
"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"
Julius Axelrod
"for
their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve
terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
D. Carleton Gajdusek
"for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada (1)
Gerhard Herzberg
"for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals"
Neurological Institute, Lisbon, Portugal (1)
Egas Moniz
"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"
New England Biolabs, Beverly, MA, USA (1)
Richard J. Roberts
"for their discoveries of split genes"
New York University, New York, NY, USA (2)
Robert F. Engle III
"for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility (ARCH)"
Thomas J. Sargent
"for their empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy"
New York University, College of Medicine, New York, NY, USA (1)
Severo Ochoa
"for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"
NHMRC Helicobacter pylori Research Laboratory, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, Australia (1)
Barry J. Marshall
"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"
Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark (1)
Aage N. Bohr
"for
the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle
motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the
structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
Nordita, Copenhagen, Denmark (1)
Ben R. Mottelson
"for
the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle
motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the
structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA (2)
John Pople
"for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry"
Dale T. Mortensen
"for their analysis of markets with search frictions"
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway (2)
May-Britt Moser
"for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
Edvard I. Moser
"for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow, Russia (1)
Vitaly L. Ginzburg
"for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow, USSR (5)
Pavel A. Cherenkov
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
Igor Y. Tamm
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
Il´ja M. Frank
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
Nicolay G. Basov
"for
fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to
the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser
principle"
Aleksandr M. Prokhorov
"for
fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to
the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser
principle"
Pavia University, Pavia, Italy (1)
Camillo Golgi
"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"
Peter Brent Brigham Hospital, Boston, MA, USA (1)
William P. Murphy
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"
Polarographic Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Science, Prague, Czechoslovakia (1)
Jaroslav Heyrovsky
"for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis"
Polytechnic Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark (1)
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA (13)
Wolfgang Pauli
"for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle"
Eugene Wigner
"for
his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the
elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application
of fundamental symmetry principles"
Val Fitch
"for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
Russell A. Hulse
"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
Joseph H. Taylor Jr.
"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
Daniel C. Tsui
"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations"
Eric F. Wieschaus
"for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"
Sir Arthur Lewis
"for
their pioneering research into economic development research with
particular consideration of the problems of developing countries"
John F. Nash Jr.
"for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games"
Daniel Kahneman
"for
having integrated insights from psychological research into economic
science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under
uncertainty"
Paul Krugman
"for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity"
Christopher A. Sims
"for their empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy"
Angus Deaton
"for his analysis of consumption, poverty, and welfare"
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA (2)
Herbert C. Brown
"for
their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing
compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis"
Ei-ichi Negishi
"for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis"
Queen's University, Kingston, Canada (1)
Arthur B. McDonald
"for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass"
Regulation of Retroviral Infections Unit, Virology Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France (1)
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
"for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus"
Research Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA (2)
Thomas H. Weller
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"
John F. Enders
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"
Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Reinhard Selten
"for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games"
Rice University, Houston, TX, USA (2)
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, Princeton, NJ, USA (2)
John H. Northrop
"for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form"
Wendell M. Stanley
"for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form"
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, NY, USA (4)
Alexis Carrel
"in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"
Karl Landsteiner
"for his discovery of human blood groups"
Herbert S. Gasser
"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"
Edward Tatum
"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"
Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA (11)
Stanford Moore
"for
their contribution to the understanding of the connection between
chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the
ribonuclease molecule"
William H. Stein
"for
their contribution to the understanding of the connection between
chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the
ribonuclease molecule"
Bruce Merrifield
"for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix"
Roderick MacKinnon
"for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels"
Peyton Rous
"for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"
Haldan K. Hartline
"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"
Gerald M. Edelman
"for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"
Christian de Duve
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"
Günter Blobel
"for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"
Paul Greengard
"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"
Ralph M. Steinman
"for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity"
Rome University, Rome, Italy (1)
Enrico Fermi
"for
his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements
produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of
nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn (Scotland), United Kingdom (1)
Richard L.M. Synge
"for their invention of partition chromatography"
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden (1)
Hannes Alfvén
"for fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydro-dynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics"
Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, United Kingdom (2)
Lord Rayleigh
"for
his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for
his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
George Porter
"for
their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by
disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA (1)
Selman A. Waksman
"for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"
Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, USA (1)
Edward A. Doisy
"for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"
Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments, Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA (1)
William B. Shockley
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
Sheffield University, Sheffield, United Kingdom (1)
Hans Krebs
"for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"
Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan (1)
Koichi Tanaka
"for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules"
Sorbonne University, Paris, France (6)
Gabriel Lippmann
"for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
Jean Baptiste Perrin
"for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
Henri Moissan
"in
recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation
and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the adoption in the
service of science of the electric furnace called after him"
Marie Curie
"in
recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the
discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of
radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable
element"
Charles Richet
"in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis"
Sorbonne University, Institut Henri Poincaré, Paris, France (1)
Louis de Broglie
"for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA (1)
Adam G. Riess
"for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae"
St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA (1)
Peter C. Doherty
"for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"
Staatliches Institut für makromolekulare Chemie (State Research Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry), Freiburg, Breisgau, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Hermann Staudinger
"for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry"
Standard Telecommunication Laboratories, Harlow, United Kingdom (1)
Charles K. Kao
"for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication"
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, CA, USA (1)
Burton Richter
"for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind"
Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA (18)
Felix Bloch
"for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
Willis E. Lamb
"for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"
Robert Hofstadter
"for
his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for
his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the
nucleons"
Arthur L. Schawlow
"for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy"
Richard E. Taylor
"for
their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of
electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential
importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
Douglas D. Osheroff
"for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"
Steven Chu
"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
Robert B. Laughlin
"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations"
Paul J. Flory
"for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules"
Paul Berg
"for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA"
Henry Taube
"for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes"
Roger D. Kornberg
"for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription"
William E. Moerner
"for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy"
Arthur Kornberg
"for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"
Thomas C. Südhof
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
William F. Sharpe
"for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics"
A. Michael Spence
"for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information"
Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA (3)
Michael Levitt
"for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems"
Andrew Z. Fire
"for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"
Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden (1)
Bertil Ohlin
"for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements"
Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden (3)
Svante Arrhenius
"in
recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the
advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation"
Hans von Euler-Chelpin
"for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes"
George de Hevesy
"for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes"
Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, Alsace (then Germany, now France) (1)
Ferdinand Braun
"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
SUNY Health Science Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA (1)
Robert F. Furchgott
"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"
Swedish Gas-Accumulator Co., Lidingö-Stockholm, Sweden (1)
Gustaf Dalén
"for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys"
Szeged University, Szeged, Hungary (1)
Albert Szent-Györgyi
"for
his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes,
with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"
Technical University, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (2)
Rudolf Mössbauer
"for
his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation
and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name"
Ernst Otto Fischer
"for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds"
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel (3)
Aaron Ciechanover
"for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation"
Avram Hershko
"for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation"
Technische Hochschule (Institute of Technology), Munich, Germany (1)
Hans Fischer
"for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin"
Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX, USA (1)
Jack S. Kilby
"for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"
The Institute for Cancer Research, Philadelphia, PA, USA (1)
Baruch S. Blumberg
"for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"
The Medical Foundation of Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA (1)
Herbert A. Hauptman
"for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures"
The Molecular Sciences Institute, Berkeley, CA, USA (1)
Sydney Brenner
"for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"
The Netherlands School of Economics, Rotterdam, the Netherlands (1)
Jan Tinbergen
"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes"
The Salk Institute, San Diego, CA, USA (1)
Roger Guillemin
"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"
The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA (3)
K. Barry Sharpless
"for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions"
Kurt Wüthrich
"for
his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for
determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules
in solution"
Bruce A. Beutler
"for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"
The Wellcome Research Laboratories, Beckenham, United Kingdom (1)
John R. Vane
"for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"
The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom (1)
John E. Sulston
"for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"
Tokyo University of Education, Tokyo, Japan (1)
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
"for
their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing
consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
Toulouse School of Economics (TSE), Toulouse, France (1)
Toulouse University, Toulouse, France (1)
Paul Sabatier
"for
his method of hydrogenating organic compounds in the presence of finely
disintegrated metals whereby the progress of organic chemistry has been
greatly advanced in recent years"
Trinity College, Cambridge, United Kingdom (1)
Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland (1)
Ernest T.S. Walton
"for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA (1)
Allan M. Cormack
"for the development of computer assisted tomography"
Unité Mixte de Physique CNRS/THALES, Orsay, France (1)
Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France (1)
Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain, Belgium (2)
Albert Claude
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"
Christian de Duve
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"
Université de Paris, Laboratoire Immuno-Hématologie, Paris, France (1)
Jean Dausset
"for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"
Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France (1)
Martin Karplus
"for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems"
Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium (2)
François Englert
"for
the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our
understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which
recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted
fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large
Hadron Collider"
Ilya Prigogine
"for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures"
Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France (1)
Jean-Marie Lehn
"for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"
University College, Liverpool, United Kingdom (1)
Ronald Ross
"for
his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism
and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this
disease and methods of combating it"
University College, London, United Kingdom (6)
William Bragg
"for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays"
Sir William Ramsay
"in
recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous
elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic
system"
Peter Medawar
"for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"
Andrew F. Huxley
"for
their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in
excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the
nerve cell membrane"
Sir Bernard Katz
"for
their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve
terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
John O'Keefe
"for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
University of Bonn, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada (1)
Michael Smith
"for
his fundamental contributions to the establishment of
oligonucleotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis and its development for
protein studies"
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA (18)
Ernest Lawrence
"for
the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained
with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
Luis Alvarez
"for
his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in
particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made
possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen
bubble chamber and data analysis"
George F. Smoot
"for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation"
Saul Perlmutter
"for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae"
William F. Giauque
"for
his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly
concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures"
Edwin M. McMillan
"for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements"
Glenn T. Seaborg
"for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements"
Melvin Calvin
"for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants"
Yuan T. Lee
"for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes"
Randy W. Schekman
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
Gerard Debreu
"for
having incorporated new analytical methods into economic theory and for
his rigorous reformulation of the theory of general equilibrium"
John C. Harsanyi
"for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games"
Daniel L. McFadden
"for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice"
George A. Akerlof
"for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information"
Oliver E. Williamson
"for his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm"
University of California, La Jolla, CA, USA (1)
Maria Goeppert Mayer
"for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
University of California, Irvine, CA, USA (3)
F. Sherwood Rowland
"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"
Irwin Rose
"for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation"
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA (4)
Willard F. Libby
"for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science"
Donald J. Cram
"for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"
Paul D. Boyer
"for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)"
Lloyd S. Shapley
"for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design"
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA (5)
Herbert Kroemer
"for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics"
Shuji Nakamura
"for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources"
Walter Kohn
"for his development of the density-functional theory"
Alan Heeger
"for the discovery and development of conductive polymers"
Finn E. Kydland
"for
their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of
economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles"
University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA (1)
Elizabeth H. Blackburn
"for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
University of California, San Diego, CA, USA (2)
Roger Y. Tsien
"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Clive W.J. Granger
"for methods of analyzing economic time series with common trends (cointegration)"
University of California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA (1)
Louis J. Ignarro
"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"
University of California School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA (3)
J. Michael Bishop
"for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"
Harold E. Varmus
"for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"
Stanley B. Prusiner
"for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"
University of California, Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, Santa Barbara, CA, USA (1)
David J. Gross
"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (17)
J.J. Thomson
"in
recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental
investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
C.T.R. Wilson
"for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"
Paul A.M. Dirac
"for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
Brian D. Josephson
"for
his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through
a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally
known as the Josephson effects"
Martin Ryle
"for
their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his
observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis
technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
Antony Hewish
"for
their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his
observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis
technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
Sir Nevill F. Mott
"for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
Francis W. Aston
"for
his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a
large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the
whole-number rule"
Frederick Sanger
"for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin"
Sir Frederick Hopkins
"for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"
Edgar Adrian
"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"
Alan L. Hodgkin
"for
their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in
excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the
nerve cell membrane"
Robert G. Edwards
"for the development of in vitro fertilization"
James E. Meade
"for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements"
Richard Stone
"for
having made fundamental contributions to the development of systems of
national accounts and hence greatly improved the basis for empirical
economic analysis"
James A. Mirrlees
"for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information"
University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA (17)
Albert A. Michelson
"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid"
James Cronin
"for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar
"for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars"
Robert S. Mulliken
"for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method"
Milton Friedman
"for
his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary
history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of
stabilization policy"
Theodore W. Schultz
"for
their pioneering research into economic development research with
particular consideration of the problems of developing countries"
George J. Stigler
"for his seminal studies of industrial structures, functioning of markets and causes and effects of public regulation"
Merton H. Miller
"for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics"
Ronald H. Coase
"for
his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction
costs and property rights for the institutional structure and
functioning of the economy"
Gary S. Becker
"for
having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of
human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour"
Robert W. Fogel
"for
having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory
and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional
change"
Robert E. Lucas Jr.
"for
having developed and applied the hypothesis of rational expectations,
and thereby having transformed macroeconomic analysis and deepened our
understanding of economic policy"
James J. Heckman
"for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples"
Roger B. Myerson
"for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory"
Lars Peter Hansen
"for their empirical analysis of asset prices"
University of Chicago, Ben May Laboratory for Cancer Research, Chicago, IL, USA (1)
Charles B. Huggins
"for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer"
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA (2)
David J. Wineland
"for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems"
Thomas R. Cech
"for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"
University of Colorado, JILA, Boulder, CO, USA (3)
Eric A. Cornell
"for
the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali
atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the
condensates"
Carl E. Wieman
"for
the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali
atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the
condensates"
John L. Hall
"for
their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
University of Delaware, , USA (1)
Richard F. Heck
"for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis"
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom (1)
Peter Higgs
"for
the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our
understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which
recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted
fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large
Hadron Collider"
University of Freiburg, Breisgau, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Hermann Staudinger
"for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry"
University of Freiburg im Breisgau, Breisgau, Germany (1)
Hans Spemann
"for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development"
University of Grenoble, Grenoble, France (1)
Louis Néel
"for
fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and
ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state
physics"
University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany (4)
Carl Bosch
"in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods"
Friedrich Bergius
"in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods"
Albrecht Kossel
"in
recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry
made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"
University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (3)
Walther Bothe
"for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
J. Hans D. Jensen
"for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
Georg Wittig
"for
their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing
compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis"
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (1)
Artturi Virtanen
"for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method"
University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA (4)
John Bardeen
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
John Bardeen
"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
Anthony J. Leggett
"for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
Paul C. Lauterbur
"for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"
University of Jerusalem, Center for RationalityHebrew, Jerusalem, Israel (1)
Robert J. Aumann
"for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis"
University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal (1)
Egas Moniz
"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses"
University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom (2)
Andre Geim
"for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene"
Konstantin Novoselov
"for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene"
University of Maryland, Department of Economics and School of Public Policy, College Park, MD, USA (1)
Thomas C. Schelling
"for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis"
University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA (1)
Craig C. Mello
"for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA (1)
Leonid Hurwicz
"for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory"
University of Moscow, Moscow, USSR (2)
Igor Y. Tamm
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
Il´ja M. Frank
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA (2)
Oliver Smithies
"for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"
University of Nottingham, School of Physics and Astronomy, Nottingham, United Kingdom (1)
Sir Peter Mansfield
"for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway (3)
Odd Hassel
"for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry"
Ragnar Frisch
"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes"
Trygve Haavelmo
"for
his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics
and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures"
University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom (8)
Frederick Soddy
"for
his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive
substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of
isotopes"
Sir Robert Robinson
"for his investigations on plant products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids"
Sir Cyril Hinshelwood
"for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions"
Sir Charles Sherrington
"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"
Ernst B. Chain
"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"
Sir Howard Florey
"for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"
Rodney R. Porter
"for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"
Nikolaas Tinbergen
"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"
University of Oxford, Royal Society, Oxford, United Kingdom (1)
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
"for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances"
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA (4)
Robert Schrieffer
"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
Raymond Davis Jr.
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
Alan G. MacDiarmid
"for the discovery and development of conductive polymers"
Lawrence R. Klein
"for the creation of econometric models and the application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies"
University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA (1)
George H. Whipple
"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA (2)
Arieh Warshel
"for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems"
University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France (1)
Jules A. Hoffmann
"for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"
University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom (2)
John Cornforth
"for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions"
University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA (1)
Ilya Prigogine
"for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures"
University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX, USA (1)
Ferid Murad
"for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA (5)
Johann Deisenhofer
"for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"
Michael S. Brown
"for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"
Joseph L. Goldstein
"for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"
Alfred G. Gilman
"for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"
Bruce A. Beutler
"for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (1)
Masatoshi Koshiba
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan (1)
Takaaki Kajita
"for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass"
University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (3)
John C. Polanyi
"for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes"
University of Tsukuba, Tokyo, Japan (1)
Hideki Shirakawa
"for the discovery and development of conductive polymers"
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA (1)
Mario R. Capecchi
"for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells"
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA (3)
Edmond H. Fischer
"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"
Edwin G. Krebs
"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"
University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia (1)
Barry J. Marshall
"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA (3)
Joshua Lederberg
"for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"
H. Gobind Khorana
"for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"
Howard M. Temin
"for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (3)
Alfred Werner
"in
recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which
he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new
fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry"
Paul Karrer
"for his investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2"
Walter Hess
"for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"
University of Zurich, Institute of Experimental Immunology, Zurich, Switzerland (1)
Rolf M. Zinkernagel
"for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden (5)
Manne Siegbahn
"for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy"
Kai M. Siegbahn
"for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy"
Arne Tiselius
"for
his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for
his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins"
Allvar Gullstrand
"for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"
US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA (1)
Jerome Karle
"for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures"
Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands (2)
Gerardus 't Hooft
"for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics"
Christiaan Eijkman
"for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA (1)
Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.
"for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones"
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA (1)
Stanley Cohen
"for their discoveries of growth factors"
Veterans Administration Hospital, New Orleans, LA, USA (1)
Andrew V. Schally
"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"
Veterans Administration Hospital, Bronx, NY, USA (1)
Rosalyn Yalow
"for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"
Victoria University, Manchester, United Kingdom (3)
Lawrence Bragg
"for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays"
Patrick M.S. Blackett
"for
his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries
therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"
Ernest Rutherford
"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances"
Vienna University, Vienna, Austria (2)
Robert Bárány
"for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"
Julius Wagner-Jauregg
"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica"
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA (1)
John B. Fenn
"for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules"
Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia (1)
Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet
"for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"
Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA (4)
Joseph Erlanger
"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"
Carl Cori
"for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"
Gerty Cori
"for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"
Douglass C. North
"for
having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory
and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional
change"
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel (1)
Ada E. Yonath
"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"
Wellcome Research Laboratories, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA (2)
Gertrude B. Elion
"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"
George H. Hitchings
"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA (1)
Frederick C. Robbins
"for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"
World Foundation for AIDS Research and Prevention, Paris, France (1)
Luc Montagnier
"for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus"
Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany (1)
Wilhelm Wien
"for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat"
Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA (7)
Lars Onsager
"for
the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are
fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes"
Sidney Altman
"for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"
Thomas A. Steitz
"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"
James E. Rothman
"for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"
Tjalling C. Koopmans
"for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources"
James Tobin
"for his analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices"
Robert J. Shiller
"for their empirical analysis of asset prices"
Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA (1)
George E. Palade
"for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"
Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics (YITP), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan (1)
Toshihide Maskawa
"for
the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the
existence of at least three families of quarks in nature"
Zoologisches Institut der Universität München, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (1)
Karl von Frisch
"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"
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